Table 2 Role of sCD28 in various chronic disease

RA

1.2 ± 1 ng/mL

(serum)

Has correlation with CD28 IVS3 + 17T/C allele polymorphism in T cell thus increased risk development to RA and has correlation with T/T genotype in RA patients.

[80]

NA

(serum)

Elevated in RA, correlated with treatment response but not with disease activity.

[81]

8.8 ng/mL

[7.9–11.1] (chronic RA) and 10.1 ng/mL [8.5–11.1] (acute RA)

(serum)

Elevated in RA, especially in acute rather than chronic RA. Has negative correlation with anti–cyclic citrullinated peptide (anti-CCP) antibody levels and

CD8⁺CD28⁺T cell count.

[76]

SLE

5.12 (3.96–6.99) ng/mL (active SLE) and 5.35 (4.21–8.90) ng/mL (inactive SLE)

(plasma)

Elevated in SLE but does not have correlation with disease activity.

[82]

SLE, primary Sjögren’s syndrome (SS), and systemic sclerosis

132

± 353 ng/ml (SLE), 290 ± 504 ng/ml (primary SS), and 83,3 ± 251 ng/ml (systemic sclerosis)

(serum)

Elevated in SLE, primary SS, and systemic sclerosis. Correlated with disease activity especially in primary SS.

[78]

Grave’s disease

1.79 ± 1.52 ng/ml

(plasma)

Increased in Grave’s disease, positively correlated with serum fT3, fT4, and TRAb levels, but negatively correlated with TSH level.

[31]

Myasthenia gravis

NA

(serum)

Increased in myasthenia gravis and correlated with treatment response.

[83]

Neuromyelitis optica and multiple sclerosis

4.96 ±

1.90 ng/mL (neuromyelitis optica) and 4.71 ± 1.14 ng/mL (multiple sclerosis)

(plasma)

Elevated in neuromyelitis optica and multiple sclerosis, slightly higher in neuromyelitis optica than multiple sclerosis. Thereis no correlation with Expanded Disability Status Scale score.

[84]

Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody (ANCA)-Associated Vasculitis (AAV)

NA

(serum)

Elevated in AAV and correlated with treatment response. Potential marker for disease activity in AAV.

[85]

Asthma (adult)

1.8 (1.4–2.6) ng/mL

(plasma)

Elevated in allergic asthma during corticosteroid treatment and positively correlated with serum total IgE level.

[86]

Asthma (pediatric)

0.83 (0.57–1.76) ng/mL

(plasma)

Elevated in allergic asthma in pediatric during treatment but does not correlate with total IgE level.

[87]

7.7 (6.3–10.3) ng/mL

(plasma)

Highly elevated in acute asthma attack, declined after treatment, has negative correlation with peak expiratory flow rate but positive correlation with eosinophil counts and eosinophil cationic protein level. There is no correlation with total IgE level.

[88]

Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

NA

(serum & pleural effusion fluid)

Increased in serum and pleural effusion fluid TB infected patients, higher in pleural effusion fluid than serum.

[89]

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection

NA

(serum)

Elevated in chronic HBV infection, correlated with ALT but not AST nor disease activity (HbeAg level).

[90]

HCV infection

≥ 1530pg/mL

(serum)

Predictor marker for progression to HCC.

[91]

Gastric cancer

NA

(serum)

Elevated in gastric cancer.

[92]

Breast cancer

2.65 ± 1.48 ng/mL

(serum)

Elevated in breast cancer.

[93]

Uveal melanoma

NA

(serum)

Increase 2.4 fold in metastasis uveal melanoma during anti-PD-1 treatment.

[94]

T2DM

19.0 (15.1–27.9) ng/mL

(plasma)

Elevated in diabetic nephropathy, correlated with fasting urine albumin:creatinine ratio.

[95]

NA

(plasma)

Predictor progression to ESRD in T2DM.

[96]

NA

(serum)

Suspected to be one of risk factor of diabetic nephropathy in T2DM.

[97]

Abdominal aortic aneurism

NA

(plasma)

Elevated in abdominal aortic aneurism but does not correlate with age, aneurism size, or CRP level.

[98]